Digitisation
Limit to:
Digital imaging
Digitisation refers to the conversion of non-digital material to digital form (ie a form which uses a binary numerical code to represent variables). A wide variety of materials as diverse as maps, manuscripts, moving images and sound may be digitised.
While digitisation offers great advantages for access, allowing users to find, retrieve, study and manipulate material, reliance on digitisation as a preservation strategy could place much material at risk. Rapid obsolescence of digital technologies and media instability render the digitised object vulnerable to loss. While digitisation has sometimes been proposed as having a preservation advantage in terms of deflecting use from originals, it has also been asserted that enhanced awareness of a resource will result in greater demand for the originals.
The high costs associated with maintaining access to and describing digitised items make it sensible to consider long-term access at the point of capture. The US Library of Congress' American Memory project has developed specifications for images that, if longevity can be promised, they hope will serve the goals of preservation - ie will serve as reasonable substitutes in the event that the original item is lost or deteriorates. There has been much research and discussion about the requirements for high-quality representations.
As these requirements will inevitably differ according to the nature of the material to be digitised and its intended use, Anne Kenney advocates the formulation of "guidance" rather than "guidelines" for digital imaging (see "Guidelines Versus Guidance for Digital Imaging: the Opportunity Before Us", Joint RLG and NPO Preservation Conference 1998). Kenney and Chapman advise, "The objective is not to scan at the highest resolution and bit depth possible, but to match the conversion process to the informational content of the original - no more, no less ...We advocate full-informational capture in the creation of digital images and sufficient indexing at the point of conversion as the surest guarantee for providing long-term viability" ("Digital Conversion of Research Library Materials, A Case for Full Informational Capture"). They suggest that image quality should be confirmed by identifying and paying particular attention to the key meaningful features of the original. Post-processing (eg optical character recognition (OCR)) following digitisation should also be tested if it is a requirement. There will also inevitably be trade-offs between file size, image quality and functionality.
Built in as part of the digitisation process should be the assignment of metadata. Preservation metadata can be used to support preservation strategies, to help ensure authenticity, and to note rights management and collection management data. Following digitisation, decisions will also need to to be made about storage and compression.
According the the US Task Force, "few digital collections will warrant the costs involved in maintaining access over time without factoring in the value and the character of ongoing use." In selecting materials for digitisation, the benefits of the enhanced accessibility afforded by digitisation will be greatest for those materials which are in high demand. Materials which are also of high value and in deteriorating condition would benefit from digitisation, although carrying this out in the conjunction with microfilming ("the hybrid approach") will provide the best assurance of long-term accessibility. Various organisations have produced selection policies for digital conversion (for example, see "Guidance for selecting materials for digitisation" by P. Ayris and Columbia University's "Selection Criteria for Digital Imaging Projects").
The "hybrid approach" combines the advantages of digitisation for access with the long-term reliability of microfilm. This can be achieved either by creating preservation standard microfilm and scanning for digital access or beginning with a high-quality scan of the original and creating a computer-output microfilm (COM) for preservation.
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-
3D Culture on the Web
Gill, Tony
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Jun 2001)
- This article provides an overview of the use of three dimensional modelling and web technologies in allowing access to cultural heritage materials.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070513
:000006284476&reqid=2789#featured
-
5th Joint Technical Symposium : Image and Sound Archiving and Access - the challenges of the 3rd Millennium: Abstracts
Joint Technical Symposium/Commission Superieure Technique de l'Image et du Son
(Date Created: Jan 2000)
(France)
- Abstracts of papers and posters presented at this meeting are available in pdf.
- http://web.archive.org/web/20041010230730/http://www.cst.fr/jts2000/en
/index.htm
- Full proceedings (book or CD-ROM) may be ordered from JTS Paris secretariat: http://www.cst.fr/jts2000/en/index.htm#actes
-
Applying the Lessons Learned from Retrospective Archiving to the Digital Archiving Conundrum
Heterick, Bruce
(Date Created: 2002)
(United States of America)
- Since 1995 JSTOR has been converting back issues of paper journals into electronic formats. This article provides an overview of the activities of JSTOR in creating an archive of scholarly journals. Included in the piece is a summary of JSTOR’s mission; an explanation of who contributes and uses the archive; a discussion of principles considered fundamental to digital preservation; and a description of five main challenges in archiving electronic content (rights and responsibilities, content, functionality, migration and business model).
- http://iospress.metapress.com/content/1wfdrr1waf8ddax8/
- Available in Information Services & Use, Vol 22, Issue 2/3, 2002, pp. 113-120, ISSN 0167-5265
-

Automated Digitisation of Printed Material for Everyone: The METADATA ENGINE Project
Mühlberger, Günter
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Jun 2002)
- This article provides an overview of the principle and workflow of an automated digitisation and metadata generation system, developed by the European Union METADATA ENGINE Project co-ordinated by the University of Innsbruck. The system is capable of automatically creating both administrative and structural metadata for digitised material by combining systematic analysis of documents and layout, a database of rules based on a "grammar" of books and journals, and optical character recognition (OCR) and segmentation and heirarchical ordering technology.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070519
:000006287741&reqid=3550#feature1
-

Automatic Exposure: Capturing Technical Metadata for Digital Still Images
Research Libraries Group
(Date Created: Jan 2004)
(United States of America)
- This article explores a Research Libraries Group (RLG) initiative that seeks to enable cultural heritage institutions capture the data elements proposed by the draft standard, NISO Z39.87 Technical Metadata for Digital Still Images. This standard provides a set of data elements, essential to an institution’s ability to manage and preserve its digital images. Included in the article are ways cultural heritage institutions are dealing with the capture of technical metadata and gives examples of harvesting tools that have been employed by cultural heritage institutions world-wide.
- http://www.oclc.org/programs/ourwork/past/automaticexposure/ae_whitepa
per_2003.pdf
-

Benchmarking Conversion Costs: A Report from the Making of America IV Project
Bonn, Maria
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Oct 2002)
(United States of America)
- A report summarising the findings of the Making of America IV project, undertaken by the University of Michigan University Library with funding from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, in investigating "the costs and methods of using digital technologies for preserving and deploying monograph materials".
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070519
:000006286872&reqid=3897#feature2
-

Best Practices for Digital Archiving: An Information Lifecycle Approach
Hodge, Gail
In: D-Lib magazine
(Date Created: Jan 2000)
- This report is based on a study commissioned by the International Council for Scientific and Technical Information (ICSTI), in March 1999 to highlight the importance of digital archiving (long-term storage, preservation and access to information that is "born digital"). Project managers from a selection of projects were surveyed about the methods they were using in their project regarding: Creation; Acquisition and Collection Development; Identification and Cataloguing; Storage; Preservation; Access.
- http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january00/01hodge.html
-
Building and Sustaining Digital Collections: Models for Libraries and Museums
Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR)
(Date Created: Aug 2001)
- This meeting report looks at the challenges that cultural institutions face when putting collections online. Business case studies were presented which enabled participants to discuss issues such as property rights, organisational impacts and sustainability.
- http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub100/pub100.pdf
- Can We Save Our Audio-visual Heritage?
Teruggi, Daniel
In: Ariadne
(Date Created: 30 Apr 2004)
- PrestoSpace is the new FP6 integrated project, a major international initiative seeking to find preservation solutions for analogue media. The Programme deals with different components essential for preservation including restoration, storage, archive management and description (metadata). PestoSpace covers digital preservation of all types of audio-visual collections.
- http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue39/teruggi/
-

Canadian Overview
Turko, Karen
(Last Updated: 18 Feb 1999)
(Canada)
- This paper discusses the Canadian approach to roles and responsibilities for preserving long-term access, digital preservation, and digitisation.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c
5f82408109cd3e5b7444b78885931e3452f9a1?fileid=0000070504:000006277814& reqid=629
-

Capturing Technical Metadata for Digital Still Images
Dale, Robin L.; Waibel, Günter
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Oct 2004)
- This article examines the importance of technical metadata in the preservation of digital images. It describes NISO (National Information Standards Organization) Z39.87 and the documentation of file formats, the development of a data dictionary independent of file formats by PREMIS, the automatic exposure initiative which will automate technical metadata collection and emerging developments in archival file formats.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObject.jsp?objid=0000070519&reqi
d=3826
- Coming Crisis in Preserving Our Digital Cultural Heritage
Lynch, Clifford A
(Date Created: 2000)
(United States of America)
- In this article the author explores the challenges that are facing cultural heritage institutions in relation to digital preservation. The author states that it is difficult for libraries to maintain their role of preserving society’s cultural and intellectual heritage due to the fact that an increasing amount of heritage is being produced in digital form. Constraints for librarians have arisen from digitisation and include areas such as legal rights and protections, both of which have made it difficult for copying and reformatting material. The article offers suggestions on how to address these problems, including making the preservation of intellectual and cultural record in digital form a public policy as well as a legal issue.
- ISBN: 0789020904
- Co-published in the Journal of Library Administration, (ISSN0193-0826) 38, 3/4, 2003 pp. 149-161 and : The Strategic Stewardship of Cultural Resources : To Preserve and Protect (ed: Andrea T. Merrill)
-
Costs of Digital Imaging Projects
Puglia, S
In: RLG DigiNews
(Last Updated: 15 Oct 1999)
(United States of America)
- This article examines the digitisation process and assigns costs to digitisation projects including the long-term maintenance of digitised material.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070519
:000006287381&reqid=15674#feature
-
Developing a 3D Digital Library for Spatial Data: Issues Identified and Description of Prototype
Rowe, Jeremy
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Oct 2002)
- This article describes the Partnership for Research in Spatial Modelling (PRISM) project at Arizona State University, including background on the use of three dimensional modelling in digital library settings and the prototype collection of scanned data describing such objects developed during the project.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070519
:000006289609&reqid=3550#feature1
- On DigiPaper and the Dissemination of Electronic Documents
Huttenlocher, Dan; Moll, Angela
In: D-Lib magazine
(Date Created: Jan 2000)
- DigiPaper enables documents to be disseminated with the formatting fixed in place, as intended by the creator. It is a new image-based document representation which combines the compression technologies of Mixed Raster Content (MRC) color image model and token-compression to achieve much smaller files than current image formats.
- http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january00/moll/01moll.html
- In D-Lib Magazine, Vol 6, No. 1
-

Digital Asset Management Systems for the Cultural and Scientific Heritage Sector
DigiCULT Consortium
(Date Created: Dec 2002)
- The second of three thematic issue papers from the Preservation and Enhancement of Cultural Heritage Unit of the Information Society Directorate General of the European Commission Digital Assett Management Systems (DAMS) and their role in the cultural and scientific heritage communities. The journal includes papers that argue the need for DAMS to create renewable resources that can be managed through their entire life cycle, as well as listing system benifits and shortcoming of DAMS in the cultural heritage community. System designers, curators, digital collection managers and exponents of digitisation consider the role of the systems in the different sectors and highlight differing understandings and expectations.
- http://www.digicult.info/downloads/thematic_issue_2_021204_low_resolut
ion.pdf
-
Digital Atheneum - Restoring Damaged Manuscripts
Griffioen, James and Kiernan, Kevin; Seales, W. Brent
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: Dec 1999)
- This article describes a project which aims to uncover previously hidden text from damaged manuscripts using novel digitisation techniques.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070513
:000006280744&reqid=1144#technical1
- In RLG DigiNews: Volume 3, Number 6.
-
Digital Conversion of Research Library Materials : A Case for Full Informational Capture
Chapman, Stephen; Kenney, Anne R.
In: D-Lib magazine
(Date Created: Oct 1996)
- This paper advocates a strategy to select research materials based on their intellectual value, and to define technical requirements for retrospective conversion to digital image form based on their informational content. The authors argue that there are compelling economic, access, and preservation reasons to support this approach.
- http://www.dlib.org/dlib/october96/cornell/10chapman.html
-
Digital Division is Cultural Exclusion. But Is Digital Inclusion Cultural Inclusion?
Worcman, Karen
In: D-Lib magazine
(Date Created: Mar 2002)
- This article examines "the extent to which digital technologies and the Internet can be instruments of social and cultural inclusion" and "how the use of these technologies can be linked to the preservation of the history of a particular cultural group." It also notes the impacts of digital technology on history and the collective memory of communities and the challenges in overcoming digital exclusion of economically disadvantaged groups, in the creation and preservation of digital history and of sustainable projects and resources.
- http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march02/worcman/03worcman.html
-
Digital Formats for Content Reproductions
Fleischhauer, Carl; Library of Congress
(Date Created: 13 Jul 1998)
(United States of America)
- This document was prepared, in part, to offer guidance to applicants in the Library of Congress/Ameritech competition. Guidance for digitisation projects is offered under the following headings: Pictorial Materials, Textual Materials Reproduced as Searchable Text and Images, Textual Materials Reproduced as Images, Maps, Sound Recordings, Moving-image Materials, and Headers for Computer Files.
- http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/formats.html
- Digital Image Asset Management at the National Gallery of Art (US)
Dueker, Peter; Newman, Alan
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Dec 2006)
(United States of America)
- This article provides an overview of the National Gallery of Art's digital asset management strategy and system.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070511
:000006283368&reqid=7420#article2
- Digital Images Archiving Study : Final Draft
Anderson, Sheila [et al.]
(Date Created: Mar 2006)
(United Kingdom)
- This article is part of a series of feasibility studies produced by the AHDS (Arts and Humanities Data Service) which aim to assess the
preservation risk and retention criteria for digital content. The purpose of the Digital images study is to define the preservation requirements of digital image files and to determine archiving
methodologies and future research directions. Issues discussed include the properties of digital images, preservation methods, images metadata, life cycle models and assessing preservation costs.
- http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/FinaldraftImagesArchivingStud
y.pdf
- Digital Imaging - How Far Have We Come and What Still Needs to be Done?
Puglia, Steven; Rhodes, Erin
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Apr 2007)
- This article considers progress, achievements and the future of digital imaging.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObject.jsp?objid=0000070519&reqi
d=7300
-
Digital Imaging and Preservation Microfilm: the Future of the Hybrid Approach for the Preservation of Brittle Books
Chapman, S.; Conway, P.; Kenney, A.
(Last Updated: 1998)
- This working paper examines the dual use of microfilming for preservation and digital imaging for enhancing access to material in brittle books.
- http://www.clir.org/pubs/archives/hybridintro.html
-
Digital Imaging for Photographic Collections: Foundations for Technical Standards
Frey, F.; Image Permanence Institute
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Dec 1997)
- This report provides guidance based on findings from a project carried out by the Image Permanence Institute (IPI) to investigate the key technical issues encountered in digitising library and archives photographic collections.
- http://www.rlg.org/legacy/preserv/diginews/diginews3.html#com
- Digital Negative (DNG)
Adobe Systems Inc.
(Date Created: Oct 2004)
- Adobe has announced a new public format for raw digital camera files, the Digital Negative (DNG) file format. DNG offers an open format for archiving proprietary raw files from a diverse range of cameras by different manufacturers, which has positive implications for their long-term preservation. Adobe has also launched a freely available software tool, the Adobe DNG converter, which can translate many of the proprietary files in use today into the new format. Both the Adobe DNG converter and the DNG file format specification are available for download.
- http://www.adobe.com/products/dng/main.html
-

Digital Preservation?
Waters, D.
In: CLIR issues
(Date Created: Nov 1998)
- Donald Waters discusses the relationship between digitisation and digital preservation and concludes: "there is no evidence that digitization addresses any serious preservation issues...Where substantial preservation resources are desperately needed is in trying to ensure the persistence of the growing proportion of the cultural record that is born and struggles to survive in the digital environment."
- http://www.clir.org/pubs/issues/issues06.html#digital
-
Digital Technology Made Simpler
Conway, P.
(Last Updated: 1999)
- This technical leaflet defines digital technologies from the perspective of communication and coding, describes the key components of a digital imaging system and the most important steps in the digital imaging process and finally poses questions that need to be considered as libraries and archives begin to use digitisation as a tool for transforming the way they operate.
- http://www.nedcc.org/resources/leaflets/6Reformatting/03DigitalTechnol
ogy.php
-
Digitisation of Library Materials: Report of the Concertation Meeting and Workshop held in Luxembourg 14 December 1998
European Commission. Directorate General XIII-E/4. Telematics for Libraries. Ed. Marc Fresko, Applerace Ltd.
(Date Created: Jan 1999)
(Luxembourg)
- Proceedings of a Concertation Meeting and Workshop organised by the European Commission, Directorate General XIII-E/4, Telematics for Libraries which brought together many with experience in creating digital copies of materials held in libraries. A discussion of metadata for managing digital objects is included as is a comparative study of digital preservation guidelines.
- ftp://ftp.cordis.lu/pub/ist/docs/digicult/digit.pdf
-

Digitization as a Means of Preservation?
Dorr, M.; Weber, H.
(Date Created: Oct 1997)
(Germany)
- This report is the result of a study commissioned by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Association) to investigate the relationship between digitisation and microfilming and how the two may be profitably combined for optimal access and maximum preservation.
- http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/digpres/digpres.html
- Digitization As A Preservation Practice: Look Before You Leap
Maroso, Amy Lynn
(Date Created: Dec 2003)
- The author stresses that although a collection may be digitised, it does not automatically mean it has been preserved. Obsolescence and file migration are major issues that librarians need to consider if future generations are to have access to digital collections.
- http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=33C431RA3SVK
9P4T0Q2H8H0D95U958J8&ID=37319
- Available in The Serials Librarian, Vol. 45, No 2, December 2003, pp. 27-37, ISSN 0361-526X or online at http://haworthpress.com/store/E-Text/ViewLibraryEText.asp
-
Digitization in an Archival Environment
McKay, Sally
(Date Created: 2003)
- This article concentrates on the disadvantages of digitization, particularly with regard to cultural institutions. Legal, technical and selection issues are discussed. There is a short section on digital preservation issues associated with digitised materials.
- http://southernlibrarianship.icaap.org/content/v04n01/Mckay_s01.htm
- in E-JASL Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship, vol. 4, no.1, (Winter 2003)
- Digitizing Audio for the National Gallery of the Spoken Word and the African Online Digital Library: Working Paper
Michigan State University
(Africa)
- This paper outlines some of the key concepts in speech digitization and a working model for digitizing speech for archival purposes.
- http://www.aodl.org/audio.php
-
Digitizing Historic Newspapers: Progress and Prospects
Deegan, Marilyn; King, Edmund; Steinvel, Emil
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Aug 2002)
- This article describes a system for the automated digitisation of newspapers and provision of searchable online versions, coupling automatic page zoning, optical character recognition (OCR), segmentation and XML markup for page representation. Examples from the British Library Demonstrator for the process are included.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070511
:000006278721&reqid=79#feature2
-

Digitizing the World's Largest Collection of Natural Sounds : Key Factors to Consider when Transferring Analog-Based Audio Materials to Digital Formats
Grotke, Robert W
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Feb 2004)
(United States of America)
- This article provides an overview of the steps undertaken by the Macaulay Library of Natural Sounds at Cornell University (USA) in converting its analog tape-based sound collection to digital storage. The article describes the Library's choices regarding digital media and data format selection, quality standards for data creation, monitoring of the archive and long-term storage.
- http://www.rlg.org/en/page.php?Page_ID=13201#article0
-

Digitizing, Archiving and Preserving Japanese Cultural Heritage
Harada, Hisayoshi
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Apr 2003)
(Japan)
- This article describes the current activities and initiatives at the National Diet Library in creating a National Digital Library Digitization Project. Copyright is discussed, especially in regard to networked digital publications. The National Diet Library also has several projects planned, including WARP (Web Archiving Project) and DNAVI (the NDL Database Navigation Service). The National Diet Library has also begun research and study for long term preservation of digital information to make the public aware of its importance. A three year project began in 2002 to set up comprehensive guidelines and policies for long term preservation strategies.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070519
:000006287396&reqid=3826#feature1
-
DoD-NARA Scanned Images Standards Conference
MacTavish, Sue
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Apr 1999)
(United States of America)
Reviewed by: DoD-NARA Scanned Images Standards Conference
- This technical feature reviews the proceedings of a Scanned Images Standards Conference, sponsored by the US Department of Defense (DoD) and National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). The conference reviewed imaging standards and examined the status of selected imaging projects.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070519
:000006286814&reqid=15674#technical1
-

DoD-NARA Scanned Images Standards Conference
Research Libraries Group
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Apr 1999)
(United States of America)
- This article provides an overview of the papers presented at the conference.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070519
:000006286814&reqid=15167#technical1
- FAQ: The Missing Dimension in Web-based Museum Exhibitions: Obstacles to Adding Depth to Digital Data
Entlich, Richard
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Dec 2006)
- This article discusses the development of virtual museum exhibitions based on three dimensional imagery on the web,and the obstacles to creation, dissemination and management.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070511
:000006283368&reqid=7420#article5
- A Few Tips to Help Preserve Digital Images
Kriegsman, Sue; Mandell, Lee
(Date Created: Mar 2004)
- This is a set of nine observations with annotations and examples on the preservation aspects digital imaging.
- http://ois.harvard.edu/~lee/preservation/preservationTips.html
- Finding Institutional Courage : Copyright in an Age of Mass Digitization
Okerson, Ann
(Date Created: 18 Nov 2006)
(United States of America)
- This article describes copyright issues surrounding digitisation projects being undertaken at Yale University particularly those involving Middle Eastern collection material.
- http://www.library.yale.edu/~okerson/Okerson-ICUDL06.doc
-

Future Directions in Access and Preservation Technologies and New Electronic Formats
Webb, Colin
(Date Created: Oct 1996)
(Australia)
- This paper, presented at the (Australian) National Conservation and Preservation Strategy Public Forum provides an overview of recent technological developments which assist in both providing access and protecting original materials, and addresses the challenges posed by the need to preserve information found in new electronic formats. A section entitled "What Issues and Barriers need to be Dealt with in Relation to Digitisation as a Preservation Strategy?" discusses digitisation and its relationship to digital preservation.
- http://www.nla.gov.au/nla/staffpaper/cwebb3.html
- Going Digital: Issues in Digitisation for Public Libraries
EARL: The Consortium for Public Library Networking
(Date Created: 6 Feb 2001)
(United Kingdom)
- An issue paper from EARL's Networked Services Policy Taskgroup, prepared by Neil Beagrie. The principal considerations for public libraries and related organisations in developing digitisation projects are discussed. Emphasis is placed on the life-cycle approach to record creation and the importance of sustaining access through effective preservation strategies.
- http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/public/earl/issuepapers/digitisation.htm
-
Guidance for Selecting Materials for Digitisation
Ayris, P.
(Date Created: Feb 1999)
(United Kingdom)
- Ayris identifies a number of recent studies and existing guidelines for the selection of material for digitisation and proposes a decision-making matrix to support selection activities in the digitisation process.
- http://www.rlg.org/legacy/preserv/joint/ayris.html
-
Guidelines for Image Capture
Chapman, S.
(Date Created: Feb 1999)
- Five topics related to digital image capture are reviewed, with the objective of identifying the points in the reformatting workflow that would most benefit from the development of guidelines. They are: materials handling, systems quality, digital master quality, derivatives, and file naming. Each of the five sections includes introductory comments, a list of issues, a review of technology, and a summary of practice to gauge where perspectives are similar and where they vary. The sections conclude with lists of questions to promote further discussion.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c
5f82409349b8753671472eac6b9cf077d95850?fileid=0000070504:000006277797& reqid=629
-

Guidelines vs. Guidance for Digital Imaging: The Opportunity Before Us
Kenney, A.
(Date Created: Feb 1999)
(United States of America)
- In this keynote address, Kenney proposes some "guiding principles" for digital imaging, warning against the dangers of adopting hard-and-fast guidelines. She also states: "The primary use of digital imaging into the near future will be to improve access. It may also be used for preservation and access, but not just for preservation purposes alone."
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp;jsessionid=84ae0c
5f824096986e990c134296932f95a6c46a1aa0?fileid=0000070504:000006277813& reqid=629
- How Should You Store Your Digital Data
TASI
(Date Created: May 2006)
- This document, in the form of FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions), addresses the issues in the storage of digital image data.
- http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/delivering/storage.html
-

Incentives to Preserve Digital Material : Roles, Scenarios and Economic Decision-Making
Lavoie, Brian F.
(Date Created: Apr 2003)
- "Economic issues are a principal component of the research agenda for digital preservation. Economics is, fundamentally, about incentives, so a study of the economics of digital preservation should begin with an examination of the incentives to preserve. Appropriate incentives are fundamental to the development of economically sustainable digital preservation activities. This white paper identifies the key decision-making roles in the digital preservation process, characterizes a core set of organizational models under which decision-makers might undertake digital preservation, and examines the implications of these models for the incentives to preserve digital materials."
- http://www.oclc.org/research/projects/digipres/incentives-dp.pdf
-
Introduction to Imaging : Issues in Constructing an Image Database
Besser, Howard; Trant, Jennifer
(Date Created: 1995)
- This site introduces the technology and vocabulary of digital imaging as they relate to the development of image databases depicting works found in museum collections. It illustrates the choices that must be made when images are captured, and outlines the areas in which institutional strategies regarding the use of imaging technologies must be developed.
- http://www.getty.edu/research/institute/standards/introimages/index.ht
ml
-

Joint RLG and NPO Conference on Guidelines for Digital Imaging
Beagrie, Neil; Elkington, Nancy
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Oct 1998)
- Report from RLG DigiNews, 15 Oct 1998, Vol 2, No 5
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObjectMain.jsp?fileid=0000070519
:000006289766&reqid=3303#feature1
- JPEG 2000
Lee, Daniel
In: RLG DigiNews
(Date Created: 15 Dec 2002)
- An interview with Dr Daniel Lee, convenor of ISO's JPEG group, about JPEG 2000, an emerging alternative image encoding format offering advantages over the current JPEG standard, including lossless compression and support for multiple resolutions.
- http://www.rlg.org/legacy/preserv/diginews/diginews6-6.html#interview
-
Meeting the Challenge of Film Research in the Electronic Age
Arnold, Stephen; Owen, Catherine; Pearson, Tony
In: D-Lib magazine
(Date Created: Mar 2000)
- This article, from the Performing Arts Data Service (PADS), talks about the "challenges facing library professionals and those working in film archives in building online collections of data for use in film research and teaching". Aspects such as documentation and film cataloguing and rights management issues are covered.
- http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march00/owen/03owen.html
- In D-Lib Magazine, Vol 6, No. 3
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Preservation of Digitized Reproductions
Society of American Archivists Council
(Date Created: 9 Jun 1997)
(United States of America)
- This statement of principles covers the issues of preservation of digitised material, selection for digitisation, quality of converted digital material, integrity and long-term access.
- http://www.archivists.org/statements/digitize.asp
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Preserving Oral History Recordings
Bradley, Kevin; Webb, Colin
In: Ariadne
(Date Created: Mar 1997)
(Australia)
- This paper discusses the practical realities, and implications, of introducing digital technology into the sound preservation functions of the National Library of Australia.
- http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue8/oral-history/
- Project Saaga - Case Study
Terav, Martin
(Date Created: May 2006)
(Estonia)
- This article describes the Estonian Heritage Archives digitisation project Saaga (www.eha.ee/saaga ) which is digitising microfilm of genealogical interest. While the primary purpose is to increase access, preservation is an offshoot and taking into account digital preservation requirements is considered good practice.
- http://www.ifla.org/VI/4/news/ipnn38.pdf
- In International Preservation News No 38, May 2006 pp 22-23. In English with summaries in French & Spanish
- Re-inventing the Wheel? Standards, Interoperability and Digital Cultural Content
Gill, Tony; Miller, Paul
In: D-Lib magazine
(Date Created: Jan 2002)
- This article focusses on the concept of interoperability for digital cultural content, the rise of multiple standards seeking to achieve wide usefulness, portability and longevity for such content, and the aim for agreement on a common framework of standards, supported by UKOLN, CIMI and Resource in hosting the International Seminar on National Digital Cultural Content Creation Strategies. Links to the meeting documents and an invitation to join the interoperability public mailing list are included.
- http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january02/gill/01gill.html
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Relevance of Preservation in a Digital World
Conway, P.
(Date Created: Feb 1999)
- This technical leaflet suggests a framework for understanding preservation in the digital context by creating a bridge from the five core principles of traditional preservation practice: longevity, choice, quality, integrity, and access. The essay describes how the purposes that preservation serves have broadened. It describes the transformation of preservation principles and outlines a perspective that reaffirms the relevance of preservation in the digital world.
- http://www.nedcc.org/resources/leaflets/6Reformatting/04RelevanceOfPre
servation.php
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Report of the Digital Preservation Policy Working Group on Establishing a Central Depository for Preserving Digital Image Collections, Part 1: Responsibilities of Transferee
Kenney , Anne R. ; Rieger, Oya Y.
(Date Created: Mar 2001)
(United States of America)
- The Digital Preservation Policy Working Group of Cornell University Library's plan for establishing a central depository as part of a digital preservation solution for Cornell's digital image collections is based on two recommendations: the formation of such a centralised depository for ensuring continuing access to the collections, and collaboration with transferees to provide both access and security to deposited files. This report, in PDF format, represents the first part of that plan and defines requirements for transfer of materials to the central depository and indicates the depository's possible roles and responsibilities.
- http://www.library.cornell.edu/imls/image%20deposit%20guidelines.pdf
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Safeguarding of the Audio Heritage: Ethics, Principles and Preservation Strategy
IASA Technical Committee
(Date Created: Sep 2001)
- This paper identifies problem areas and proposes recommended practices for sound and AV archives for today's technical environment. These recommendations are a balance between the ideal situation and the real world that we inhabit. They are intended to help the reader to focus on the various issues relating to responsible audio archiving practice.
- http://www.iasa-web.org/downloads/publications/TC03_English.pdf
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Selecting Research Collections for Digitization
Hazen, Dan; Horrell, Jeffrey; Merrill-Oldham, JanAugust 1998
(Date Created: Aug 1998)
- This paper proposes a model of the decision-making process required of research libraries when they embark on digital conversion projects. Questions posed include ones relating to long term preservation requirements.
- http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/hazen/pub74.html
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Stairways to Digital Heaven? Preserving Oral History Recordings at the National Library of Australia
National Library of Australia; Webb, Colin
(Last Updated: 13 Nov 1996)
(Australia)
- The National Library of Australia embarked on a program of digital conversion for its large Oral History collection. This paper provides some of the context for this project and the planning processes involved in the decision to digitise. The process is then described, with some discussion of advantages and disadvantages, and some issues for the future.
- http://www.nla.gov.au/nla/staffpaper/cwebb2.html
- Storing Your Digital Images
Bockaert, Vincent
(Date Created: 2006)
- This article examines two digital image storage methods - hard disk and optical storage,. The methods are examined in terms of costs, data stability, data recovery and long term storage.
- http://www.dpreview.com/learn/?/Glossary/Storage/Issues_01.htm
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Strategies for Building Digitized Collections
Smith, Abby
(Date Created: Sep 2001)
(United States of America)
- In this report, Abby Smith, of the Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR), distills the 10 years' experience that libraries have had in digitising collection items for online access. Along with case studies, the report outlines rationales for digitisation, selection of material and the impact on institutions, including funding, collection management and preservation issues. Recommendations from the report focus on clarity in purpose, selection, costing, target audience, metadata schemes and online availability.
- http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub101abst.html
- Available online as full text or PDF, or for purchase in print
- Survey of Record-Keeping Practices of Photographers using Digital Technology
Bushey, Jessica
(Date Created: 28 Aug 2005)
- This survey is part of the InterPARES 2 focus area on artistic activities. Digital photography is used in many areas including for artistic, industrial, scientific, medical and e-government purposes. The survey’s objectives are to gather data relating to the types of records that are produced by professional photographers using digital technology, their assumptions regarding the access to their records over the long-term and the nature and variety of digital imagery and record-keeping systems they use. The analysis of the data will provide the basis for the production of guidelines for digital photography which will be written by InterPARES.
- http://www.interpares.org/display_file.cfm?doc=ip2_digital_photo_recor
dkeeping_report.pdf
- Sustainability of Digital Resources
TASI
(Date Created: Feb 2006)
- This TASI advice document covers how to plan for and maintain sustainable digital images but the principles are also applicable to other forms of digital resources. The document covers approaches to sustainability such as maintenance, integration and re-purposing. Practical measures for ensuring sustainability are also discussed including the use of standards, QA and documentation. Options for financing sustainability are also canvassed.
- http://www.tasi.ac.uk/advice/managing/sust.html
- Also available in pdf.
- Three Manufacturers form PASS Group to Safeguard Files
Digital Photography Review
(Date Created: 27 Sep 2004)
- Konica Minolta, Fuji Film and Eastman Kodak have formed the Picture Archiving and Sharing Standard (PASS) Group.This press release outlines this important step in the development of a set of storage standards which will enable viewing of digital photos that are saved on CDs, DVDs and other media in the long term. Although initially aimed at the consumer market, the standard could have implications for all sectors.
- http://www.dpreview.com/news/0409/04092705pass_group.asp
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Why Digitize?
Smith, Abby
In: CLIR Reports
(Date Created: Feb 1999)
- This report provides a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of digitising culturally significant material. It warns of the risks of assuming that digitisation will fulfil a preservation function.
- http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub80-smith/pub80.html
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Digital Futures: Strategies for the Information Age
Deegan, Marilyn; Tanner, Simon
(Last Updated: 2001)
(United Kingdom)
- This book takes a strategic approach to the development and implementation of digital technologies in the library sector including digitisation, resource discovery, preservation and digital libraries.
- ISBN: 1-85604-411-4
- http://www.facetshop.co.uk/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen=PROD&Store_Code=1&P
roduct_Code=580-3&Category_Code=
- Digital Imaging: A Practical Handbook
Lee, Stuart
(Date Created: Oct 2000)
- An introductory guide to digital imaging for library and information practitioners by Stuart Lee. The successive stages in the digitisation process are outlined, and issues such as preservation and access, and metadata and delivery, are addressed.
- ISBN: 1-85604-353-3
- To order contact:Bookpoint Ltd, Mail Order Department, 39 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4TD#24.95Tel: 01235 400 400 Fax: 01235 400 454 E-mail: orders@bookpoint.co.uk
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Guidelines On Best Practices For Using Electronic Information
European Commission (DLM Forum)
(Date Created: 1997)
- These multidisciplinary guidelines, developed at the 1996 DLM Forum, help to define short and medium-term strategies for managing and preserving electronic information.
- ISBN: 92-828-2285-0
- http://dlmforum.typepad.com/gdlines.pdf
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Handbook for Digital Projects : A Management Tool for Preservation and Access
Sitts, Maxine K (Ed)
(Date Created: Dec 2000)
(United States of America)
- A web resource providing information on the issues surrounding the digital conversion of collection materials. With contributions from many of the School for Scanning series presenters, it provides information on project selection and management, technical and copyright considerations, digital longevity and includes commentary on the transformation in scholarly access and preservation tenets required to fully utilize and maintain digital images.
- ISBN: 0-9634685-4-5
- http://www.nedcc.org/oldnedccsite/digital/dighome.htm
- also available as a print copy.
- Moving Theory into Practice: Digital Imaging for Libraries and Archives
Kenney, Anne R.; Rieger, Oya Y.
(Date Created: Apr 2000)
(United States of America)
- An RLG sponsored publication on digitization and digital preservation designed to assist in creating integrated digital imaging projects. Topics discussed include digital conversion, benchmarking, quality control, metadata, access and retrieval, image management and web delivery, digital preservation and the development and sustainability of digital imaging initiatives.
It includes extra commentary from more than 50 experts in their field and numerous additional reference sources. Winner of the Society of the American Archivists 2001 Waldo Leland Gifford Award.
- ISBN: 0-9700225-0-6
- http://www.oclc.org/programs/publications/reports.htm
- Permanent Pixels : Building Blocks for the Longevity of Digital Surrogates of Historical Photographs
Van Horik, Rene
(Date Created: Oct 2005)
- This in-depth (220 p.) publication concentrates on the long term preservation of digital surrogates. The book presents a detailed examination of digital preservation strategies, file format standards, metadata schemas and a discussion of some experiments on the longevity of the digital surrogates.
- ISBN: 9069844621
- http://www.knaw.nl/publicaties/pdf/20051103.pdf
- DANS Studies in Digital Archiving, no. 1
- Preservation in the Age of Large-Scale Digitization a White Paper
Rieger, Oya
(Date Created: Feb 2008)
- This paper examines large-scale digitisation initiatives to identify issues that will influence the availability and usability over time of the electronic books that are produced. It is a broad scope document touching on preservation, management digital preservation, long term return and effects on collections, research and collaboration.
- http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub141/contents.html
- CLIR Report Pub 141
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In the Picture: Preservation and Digitisation of European Photographic Collections
Klijn, Edwin; de Lusenet, Yola
(Date Created: Aug 2000)
- This report sponsored by the European Commission on Preservation and Access focuses on photographic collections in European institutions with an emphasis on digitization projects and preservation practices. The findings discussed in the report were mainly collected from responses to a questionnaire. The survey results noted the need for substantial investment of resources, the need for more knowledge and appropriately trained staff, and observed the underestimation of description required, and metadata is under-utilised.
- ISBN: 90-6984-294-7
- http://www.knaw.nl/ecpa/sepia/linksandliterature/sepia1.html
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- 2006 National Digital Forum Conference : Participating with Communities : Digital opportunities, Collaborations and Celebrations
30 Nov - 01 Dec 2006
, Soundings Theatre, Museum of New Zealand, Te Papa Tongarewa,
(New Zealand)
- The conference focused on creating digital content for the future. What will be expected of museums, archives, and libraries to reach end-user communities in the future, and what needs to be done today? Conference themes include discussion on national identity, the National Digital Content Strategy, standards, community content contribution, and emerging trends.
- http://ndf.natlib.govt.nz/about/forum2006.htm
- Presentations in PDF, video streaming and video downloads available.
- 2007 National Digital Forum : Digital Realities - Communities, Convergence and Sustainability
29 - 30 Nov 2007
, Wellington Town Hall, New Zealand
(New Zealand)
- This conference focused on communities and digital cultural heritage. It includes talks on National and international initiatives.
- http://ndf.natlib.govt.nz/about/forum2007.htm
- Abstracts available from this URL, Powerpoint presentations and some ideo recordings of the conference are available on the GOVIS website: http://richmedia.govis.org.nz/
- DIAL '06 : 2nd International Conference
on Document Image Analysis for Libraries
27 - 28 Apr 2006
, Lyon
(Date Created: 2006)
(France)
- Topics include Imaging & compression standards for document preservation, guaranteeing authenticity of document images and file formats & representations of document images, as well as OCR. Proceedings available at http://liris.cnrs.fr/dial2006/proceedings.html list papers.
- http://liris.cnrs.fr/dial2006/
- Digital Futures 2006 : Imaging, Archives and Collections
31 Oct 2006
, The Royal Society, London
Royal Photographic Society
(United Kingdom)
- Topics include image permanence, image storage and retrieval, data migration strategies and managing digital archives.
- http://www.rps-isg.org/docs/DF2006programme.pdf
- ICHIM 2004 : Digital Culture and Heritage
31 Aug - 02 Sep 2004
, Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin
(Germany)
- http://www.ichim.org/ichim04/index.html
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Joint RLG and NPO Preservation Conference : Guidelines for Digital Imaging : Conference Papers
28 - 30 Sep 1998
, University of Warwick, Scarman House
Research Libraries Group
(Last Updated: 3 Mar 1999)
(United Kingdom)
Has papers: Guidelines vs. Guidance for Digital Imaging: The Opportunity Before Us
; Canadian Overview
; Guidance for Selecting Materials for Digitisation
; Guidelines for Image Capture
; Issues and Approaches to Preservation Metadata
- Page has links to Conference papers.
- http://digitalarchive.oclc.org/da/ViewObject.jsp?objid=0000073852&reqi
d=24076
- This URL is for index to past publications click on link "1998 Joint RLG and NPO Preservation Conference : Guidelines for Digital Imaging"
- Museum Computer Network 32nd Annual Meeting : MCN 2004 : Great Technology for Collections, Confluence and Community
10 - 13 Nov 2004
, Hilton, Minneapolis, Minnesota
(United States of America)
- Papers include digitisation projects, digital preservation, metadata, museum websites, intellectual property rights.
- http://www.mcn.edu/conference/MCN2004/delegate/mcn2004-d1a.htm
- Some presentation slides available from the conference website
- NARA : 18th Annual Preservation Conference : Preservation Reformatting : Digital Technology vs. Analog Technology
27 Mar 2003
, National Archives at College Park, Maryland
U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. (NARA)
(United States of America)
- Contains links to conference proceedings. These papers all tend to debate the choices associated with making digital copies of analogue materials and relate the difficulties associated with maintaining the digital duplicates.
- http://www.archives.gov/preservation/conferences/2003/index.html
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Organisations and Websites
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- BCR's CDP Digital Toolbox
Collaborative Digitization Program
(Regularly Updated)
(United States of America)
- The Digital Toolbox is designed to guide administrators through the range of questions to ask in the initial planning stages of a digital project. It provides links to general information on digital projects and information on the technical aspects of digitisation. The Collaborative Digitization Program (CDP originally the Colorado Digitization Project) merged with BCR in April 2007.
- http://www.bcr.org/cdp/digitaltb/index.html
- California Digital Library - standards documents
California Digital Library
(Last Updated: 04 Oct 2007)
(United States of America)
- This site, the publications page of the California Digital Library, contains links to guidelines for metadata, content and encoding, digital image formats and image capture, as used by the CDL. Other guidelines and activities are also listed.
- http://www.cdlib.org/about/publications/
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Canadian Initiative on Digital Libraries
Canadian Initiative on Digital Libraries
(Regularly Updated)
(Canada)
- The Canadian Initiative on Digital Libraries (CIDL) was an alliance of Canadian libraries which promoted, coordinated and facilitated the development of Canadian digital collections and services in order to optimise national interoperability and long-term access to Canadian digital library resources. CIDL was dissolved on 31 March 2007 and was a forerunner of AlouetteCanada.
- http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/206/301/lac-bac/cidl-ef/2007-09-28/cidl/i
ndex-e.html
- Clearinghouse of Image Databases and the IMAGELIB listserv archives
Glogoff, S.; The University of Arizona Library
(Regularly Updated)
(United States of America)
- This website gathers technical and descriptive information about imaging projects as information resources. It includes brief descriptions of the projects and provides contact details for further information.
- http://elearn.arizona.edu/imagelib/
- CoOL Conservation OnLine : Resources for Conservation Professionals
Stanford University Libraries
(Date Created: Feb 1993)
(United States of America)
- CoOL, a project of the Preservation Department of Stanford University Libraries, is a full text library of conservation information, covering a wide spectrum of topics of interest to those involved with the conservation of library, archives and museum materials. It includes sections on electronic media and records.
- http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/
- Creating and Managing Digital Content
Canadian Heritage Information Network (CHIN)
(Date Created: 27 Apr 2002)
(Canada)
- This web site, maintained by the Canadian Heritage Information Network, provides guidance on creating and managing digital resources for heritage projects, including an overview of issues and resources in preservati
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